Chapter III, Part 3
55. Representive
Processes are concerned not with Events and Actions but with the States and
Circumstances. The Prototype Clause Core has ‘Represented’ as Subject and
‘Representation’ as a Verb Phrase that typically includes a Complement or an
Adverbial. The Transitivity is fundamentally Medial.
56. Existential
Processes are the simplest, the Clause Core only expressing some Human or
Thing in the role of ‘Existent’. The Prototype has ‘there’ plus a form of the
Verb ‘be’ (nearly always Simple rather than Perfect or Progressive) in the
Present [563] or Past [564]. Less prototypical Verbs with Existential ‘there’
include ‘exist’ itself [565] and, particularly in stories, ‘live’ in the Past
[566].
[563]
there is only one species of brown trout
in Northern Europe (Global Ecology)
[564]
There were many good Germans but
they were singularly ineffective in restraining the bad Germans. (War and
Social Change)
[565]
it was suggested, by Leverrier in France and by Adams in England, that there
existed a previously undetected planet in the vicinity of Uranus.
(Thing Called Science)
[566] Once upon a time, in the
heart of Russia, there lived an old
peasant woman called Babushka. (Brownie Stories)
The Item ‘there’ is an
anomaly in the Grammar of English Word-Classes. It is distinct from the Adverb
‘there’ meaning ‘at that place’, as in [567]. In casual style, it acts like a
Singular Pronoun Subject in the Contraction ‘there’s’, whether the technical
Subject is Singular [568] or Plural [569]. I found just a few Plurals when the
Verb was clearly separated [570], or with a series of Singular Subjects [571].
[567]
There was the stile before me — the very fields through which I had
hurried. (Eyre)
[568]
I use a bath oil in my bath — there’s an American one I like. (Clothes
Show)
[569]
There’s loads of shops with their lights on and traffic
and people (Bayswater)
[570]
There isn’t many old parish’ners like her, I doubt. (Floss)
[571]
There is hospitality, and cordiality
and good fellowship, (Mountain Woman)
Perhaps
‘there’ is a unique ‘Existential Dummy’ supplied to occupy the position before
Existential ‘be’.
57.
In Circumstantial Processes, Circumstances are expressed in Clause Cores
rather than in Adverbials where they usually go. One Prototype called
the ‘Cleft’ is divided (‘cleft’) between two Clauses to put focus on the
Circumstance (VI.22). In the Independent Clause, the Subject is the
Circumstantial Dummy Pronoun ‘it’ and the Verb is ‘be’ in the Simple Present or
Past, plus Subject Complements as Circumstances of Time or Place; the Dependent
Clause tells what was or happened then or there.
[572] There are reported minor
clashes with security forces on Saturday evening, but no notable casualties. It was on
Sunday that the scenes turned ugly. (Guardian)
[573]
It was at the door of this overgrown tavern that the London coach stopped (Pickwick)
Commands like [574-75] are infrequent, except being ‘on time’, ‘not late’ [576-77].
[574]
Be at the corral, with the buggy, at three. (Roaring Camp)
[575] Don’t be at
home or away without quick help! (Safety Kit)www
[576]
Just be on time, hit the lines and say the
marks! (Hollywood Rogues)
[577]
Now run along like a good girl and don’t be late tomorrow. (Where
There’s Life)
My data show minimal
Denials of Intention [578-79] and Control [580-81].
[578]
Martin sat perched on the edge of a gilt-framed armchair, looking as though he did
not quite
mean to be there. (Jerusalem)
[579]
You didna mean to be late, […] but
your aunt’s been worrited to-day. (Adam Bede)
[580]
Amy can’t help being there. She hasn’t
anywhere else to go. (English Crime)
[581]
I piled two disco-bleared daughters into the car and drove [to] Barkway — a
village which can’t help being close to Royston (Fishkeeping)
58.
A peculiar Lexicogrammar applies to Circumstances of Weather, whose
Prototypes ‘being cold’ and ‘being hot’ also prefer Simple Verbs [582-83],
whereas the Prototypes of ‘raining’ and ‘snowing’ prefer the Progressive
[584-85]; the Simple indicates a common weather condition [586-87]. Even though
the Subject cannot be an Agent, an apparent Direct Object can occur [588-89].
[582]
it was bitterly cold as I covered my bagpipes and rubbed my frozen fingers (Invasion)
[583]
The air was full of mosquitoes. It was very
hot and sticky (Pacific)
[584]
It is raining in Tromsø. The sky is the
colour of lead shot, with the Arctic Ocean dark and morose below it. (Artic
Odyssey)
[585]
it was snowing, it was like a fairy tale,
clean and soft (Gate-Crashing)
[586]
The region’s intense greenness is the giveaway that it often rains. (Best)
[587]
I will come in after breakfast every day […] even when it snows (Legacy of Love)
[588]
The problem was, it was raining sleet
outside. (Rain)
[589]
It was snowing a blizzard, and we
got lost (End of the Morning)
With no Agent, Commands like [590-91] sound odd; the handful for ‘not raining’ or ‘snowing’ are facetious [592-93]. I find no Denials of Intention or Control like [594].
[590]
*Oh, don’t be midnight already!
[591]
*Don’t be Monday morning yet, don’t!
[592]
Don’t Rain on My Parade (Funny Girl)
[593] Let it Sun, Let it Rain, Just
Don’t Snow (Bad Samaritan)www
[594] *It didn’t mean to rain on your birthday, but the humidity was so
high it couldn’t help but rain.
59. Identification
is a Process that assigns an Identity, frequently a familial, social, or
institutional role. The Prototype Clause has the ‘Identified’ as Subject
Entity, ‘be’ as Verb, and ‘Identity’ as Subject Complement.
[595]
May I present to you a member of my wife’s family. He is my
wife’s brother. (Saigon)
[596]
Mischa is my father’s oldest friend (Relic)
[597]
Evelyn Matlock, whom you have met, is the housekeeper. (Taste
for Death)
[598]
Winston Churchill was the President of the Board of Trade
(Ideas in Action)
Dispositive or Ergative
Identification is for ‘naming’ or ‘electing’ somebody into a role, which is
expressed by just a few Verbs. The Active has Identifier as Subject. Identified
as Object, and Identity as Object Complement [599-600]; the Passive has the
Identified as Subject [601-02].
[599] If I’d been a ranch, they
would have named me the Bar-Nothing. (Rita Hayworth in Gilda)
[600]
Phi
Kappa Phi elected her President in
1921. (Helen Bishop Thompson)www
[601]
Gary Drake was named the Grand Finals Player-of-the-Tournament
(Tennis World)
[602]
Maynard
Jackson Jr. was elected the first black mayor of Atlanta in 1973. (USA Today)www
60.
Commands are highly selective, and would be plausible only for an Identity
which can be deliberately assumed or assigned, as in [603-604] but not, say, in
[595a-596a].
[603]
Please
be my wife, be one with me (Dru Hill)www
[604]
Oh Rose, please, please be my friend. Please take the ring,
please! (Twist of Fate)
[605]
I have bigger, tiara-holding hair and red lipliner always at the ready. Please elect
me
your 1999-2000 Homecoming Queen.
(Courtney Beebe in the Montana Kaimin)www
[595a]
*Kindly be my wife’s brother.
[596a]
*Please, Misha, be my father’s oldest friend
I can find no Denials of Intention
like [603a] or of Control like [596b].
[603a]
*She didn’t mean to be my wife, but she married me by mistake in a dimly lighted chapel.
[596b]
*Misha couldn’t help being my father’s
oldest friend because he was his only friend.
61. Attribution
is for Representing some inherent trait or property. The Prototype Clause has
‘Attributed’ as Subject, ‘be’ as Verb, and ‘Attribute’ as Subject Complement
[606-09].
[606]
Aldebrand is very tall and thin, but immensely strong and fit (Warhammer Armies)BNC
[607]
She was middle-aged, thin as a bean-pole, with a
mouth puckered up with spite. (Topaz)
[608]
Mrs Binks was very fat and a filthy dress hung shapelessly on
her. (Vets Might Fly)
[609]
His face was white, his skin scrofulous, his
teeth decaying. (Suburbia)
Attributes make odd
Commands, either Affirmative [610] or Negative [611]. I find no Denials of
Intention like [606a]. Denial of Control seems a bit more plausible [612], but
somewhat trivial.
[610] Seattle photographer
seeks models 18-35. Please be slender (Models)www
[611] First off don’t be fat or short.
I sadly am both. (Tidus)www
[606b]
*Aldebrand didn’t mean to be very tall and thin, but his
DNA was unrelenting.
[612] If we had such
a custom in Japan, we couldn’t help being fat. (New
Zealand)www
62. Evaluation
is for Representing a Value according to the Attitude of the speaker. The
Prototype Clause has the ‘Evaluated’ as Subject, ‘be’ as Verb, and the ‘Value’
as Subject Complement for Ameliorative [613-14] or Pejorative [615-16].
Children are doubtless well sensitised to the difference by their elders [617].
[613]
he was always so charming to me — so nice. (Over the
Edge)
[614]
people are extremely kind and extremely generous. (Save
the Children)BNC
[615]
Lawson was rude and arrogant — exactly what a
chancellor should be. (Economist)
[616]
She was mean and horrible, snide, self-righteous
and unkind. (Three Times Table)
[617]
Mum had told him that whenever he was good she liked him
but that when he was bad, she didn’t. (Mr Tom)
Commands are mostly
Affirmative for Ameliorative and Negative for Pejorative:
[618]
Always be polite — even if the customer isn’t. (Retailing)
[619]
‘Don’t be rude, dear’, said his
mother placidly. (Room with a View)
[620]
‘Be reasonable!’ pleaded Geoffrey. ‘Men
aren’t saints!’ (Damsel)
[621]
Don’t be unreasonable about
the service and rant and rave (Canoe Travel)www
[622]
Be wise, for wisdom availed Daniel in the
den of lions (Ivanhoe)
[623]
Don’t
Be Stupid, You Know I Love You
(Shania Twain)
Intention is naturally
denied for the Pejorative Values [624-25]. I found just a few Denials of
Control [626-27].
[624] I didn’t mean to be rude, but it’s so
comfortable to say all I think (Little Women)
[625] I’m sorry master, I didn’t mean to be stupid. (Feathered Circle)www
[626]
Chloe couldn’t help being rude. She wanted
to hit him! (Vicious Circle)www
[627] Stupidity is not a sin, the
victim can’t help being stupid. (Adventurers)www
63. Possession
is a fuzzy Process, vacillating among Identity or Attribute (what is said to be
yours), Disposition (what you can do with it), Cognition (what you believe is
yours), and Aspiration (what you want to have). The Prototype Clause with
‘Possessor’ as Subject, ‘have’ as Verb Phrase and ‘Possessed’ as Object, is for
a straightforward relation of ‘having tangible property’ [628-629]. Verbs like
‘own’ and ‘possess’ are less common, though more consistent for this relation
[630-631].
[628]
I have a Knitmaster machine. (Machine Knitting Monthly)
[629]
When three hundred of the richest people on Earth have wealth equal to the bottom three billion people on
Earth, extreme affluence is built on the back of extreme poverty. (Ralph Nader,
Crashing the Party)
[630]
Republican
gubernatorial candidate William E. Simon Jr. owns stock in a natural gas
company accused of taking advantage of California. (LA Times)
[631] Hades possessed a magic helmet which made him invisible. (Myths, Gods and Fantasy)
64.
By form at least, the Transitivity of Possession appears Active, though rarely
counting as an Action; and some Verbs have corresponding Passives, such as
‘own’ (common) [632] and ‘possess’ (rare) [633], but apparently not ‘have’
[634]. However, a Medial version is common with Possessed as Subject, ‘be’ as
Verb, and a Possessive as Subject Complement [635].
[632]
the vacant
land was owned by Liverpool City Council (Town and Country)
[633] in the seventeenth century, the church was possessed by
Daniel Disney (East Lindsey)
[634]
*A Knitmaster machine is had by me.
[635]
The pictures were Douglas’s and the furniture was mine (Art Newspaper)
65.
Dispositive Possession has the important Prototypes ‘giving’, ‘getting’, and ‘taking’.
‘Giving’ is widespread in the Active with Giver as Subject, Giving as Verb,
Receiver as Indirect Object, and Given as Direct Object [636]. The Passive may
have the Given as Subject with the Giver formatted in an Agentive Adverbial
[637]; or else or the Receiver as Subject, which leaves the Given as a Noun
Phrase whose role in the Clause Core is ambiguous [638] — perhaps a relic of an
older Subject when the present-day Subject was a Fronted Indirect Object, as in
Biblical style [639]. ‘Getting’ principally occurs with the Getter as Subject
and the Gotten as Object [640-41]. Yet the Verb ‘get’ also serves for Giving
with the Giver as Subject and the Getter as Indirect Object, implying that the
Given as Direct Object first had to be secured by the Giver [642-643]. ‘Taking’
has as Prototype the Taker and Subject, Taking as Verb, and the Taken as Direct
Object, possibly with the Giver in an Adverbial with ‘from’ [644].
[636] Frederick then gave her
a palace of her own. (Stonehenge to Stonewall)www
[637]
This
bell was given to the Dean of St. Paul’s by William III. (Big Ben)www
[638] she was given a
crystal vase and luggage as a leaving
present. (Glenpatrick News)
[639]
there
came out of the smoke locusts upon the earth: and unto them was given power
(Revelation 9:3)
[640]
he gets some unemployment money (conversation)BNC
[641]
my friend got a house at Westerhailes Park eleven months
ago (Radio Forth)BNC
[642]
We got her a flat in the same block as ours (Woman)
[643]
Geoff’s mum got me a piece of cheese last week from
Superkeys. (conversation)BNC
[644]
She took the glass from Sarah. ‘It’s cognac.’ ‘The
kind Napoleon liked’. (Freely Sing)
66.
‘Selling’ has the Prototype of Seller as Subject, Selling as Verb, and Sold as
Direct Object; if specified, the Buyer is Indirect Object [645], and the Price
appears in an Adverbial of Means with ‘for’ [646]. ‘Buying’ has the Prototype
of Buyer as Subject, Buying as Verb, and Bought as Direct Object, and
optionally a Receiver as Indirect Object [647] and a Price again in a ‘for’
Adverbial [648-49]. Like Giving, both ‘selling’ and ‘buying’ have various
options in the Passive for the Subject: the Sold [649], the Bought [650], or,
rarely, the Receiver [651-52], this last Pattern again leaving an ambiguous
Noun Phrase for the Sold or the Bought.
[645]
Kenelm had then sold my father a pair of
eighteenth-century cupboards. (Authors)
[646]
He had sold a Rolls-Royce for about £28,000 (Daily
Telegraph)
[647]
A niece of Miss Vine’s bought her a new budgerigar.
(Dynmouth)
[648]
Vicki bought a birthday card for nanny
(conversation)BNC
[649] A converted broom cupboard opposite Harrods was sold for £36,500. (Best)
[650] A new tractor was bought in 1957, the first for 30 years
(Henley Golf Club)BNC
[651]
The story behind Michelle’s tank was that she was sold a four
footer (Fishkeeping)
[652] He was bought a
few drinks by workmates and took off on his own, round various bars, to
finish the job properly. (Misfortunes of Nigel)
67.
The Possessive of ‘having’ is rare in Commands like [653-54]; for Medial
Possessive, I only find the quaint ‘be mine!’ [655]. The Active Imperative
‘have’ usually occurs for other Processes, such as Dispositive [656], Enactive
[657], and Perceptive [658]. But Dispositive Possessives are naturally popular
in Commands, such as [659-62].
[653] Imagine. . .Have all the money you need!
(MATCU)www
[654]
If you don’t want the seat, don’t have it (Bummel)
[655]
I never felt love’s holy thrill till I saw thee! Be
mine! (Artemus Ward)
[656]
‘Come in and have some tea’, a cut-glass voice invited. (Dandelion Days)
[657]
Go to the rose gardens, have a walk
along the sea front (Trade Union Congress)www
[658] Have a look
under the arch: a sculpted scene of the Good Pastor (Normandy)www
[659]
I heard the captain say, ‘Give the men an extra glass of grog’. (Coral
Island)
[660]
Get legal verifiable
accredited degrees. No study, no exams. (Belford
‘University’)www
[661]
Dai Huang followed her. ‘Sell me your daughter’, Li Lu’. (New Internationalist)
[662]
‘Buy me a dram and I will tell you all about it.’ I did and he did. (Tales
of the Loch)
I found only one
occurrence each of Possession in a Denial of Intention [663] and a Denial of
Control [664]. Dispositive Possession was more frequent [665-66].
[663]
I’m just happy to be rid of a stock that I didn’t mean to own in the first place. (It was a result of a
spinoff.) (Joe Williams)www
[664]
I was put in possession of a gentleman’s house in this parish here, that
everybody would suppose couldn’t help
having money if he tried. (Sketches by Boz)
[665]
When the French put shares up for sale the English couldn’t help buying them and soon had the majority share
in the Suez Canal (Imperialism in Africa)www
[666]
parents in rural areas couldn’t help selling their cattle to afford the tuition fee (Argus)www
68.
In general, the Representative Processes are hardly used in Dispositives like
‘making be’. All I found was one facetious Circumstance of Weather [667], plus
a handful of Values [668-69].
[667]
If she didn't know better she’d have said he’d sabotaged her jeep and made
it rain this way, just so he could enjoy some amusement at her expense!
(Garden of Desire)
[668]
Besides, I can maybe make Colley be good to my father. (Little Lower)
[669] Kuke is the cutest guy ever,
please don’t make him be bad. (Shadows
of the EU)www
69. Expressive
Processes serve to ‘express’ your ‘inner’ States and Events, guided by the
cognitive and social norms of culture and language. The Prototype Clause Core
in the Active has ‘Expresser’ as Subject, ‘Expression’ as Verb Phrase, and
‘Expressed’ as Direct Object [670-71]. The Passive has ‘Expression’ as Subject
and ‘Expresser’ in an Agentive Adverbial [672-73].
[670] World War II field commanders expressed a wish for horse-troopers. (US Cavalry)www
[671] The Israeli Prime Minister
expressed his shock at the incident. (Independent)
[672] the view was expressed by some that the training of recruits was premature. (Nelson
Mandela)
[673] no sympathy was
expressed by male members of the group as to the comparative
hardness of the women’s lives (Psychic and Political
Dimensions)
70.
In Emotive Processes, the Expression consists of a movement (an
‘ex-motion’, so to speak) from an inner State or Event of the body or mind
toward an outer display of face, gesture, or tone of voice (V.5), which may
entail Intention or Control, or may not. Several Clause Cores might qualify as
Prototypes. One has the ‘Emoter’ as Medium for the Subject, the Medial ‘be’ as
Verb, and the ‘Emotion’ as an Adjective Subject Complement [674-76]; another
has the Medial ‘feel’ for the Verb [676-77]. Or again, a Past Participle with a
form like the Passive links up to ‘be’ [678-79]. As these data indicate,
Emotives contrast quite clearly between Ameliorative (like ‘happy’) and
Pejorative (like ‘sad’), the latter being more com-mon in my data, especially
among the Participles.
[674]
I was happy in London, free, mistress of my self and my pocket. (So
Very English)
[675]
I am sad for the suffering of the Iraqi people. (Economist)
[678]
Then she said she felt happy enough to skip
the Ecstasy experiment (Independent)
[677]
I felt sad, depressed, utterly miserable. My aunt had
about a month to live. (Gorbals)
[678]
Aloysia had even more potential talent. Mozart was enraptured. (Mozart)
[679]
I was saddened and grieved and distressed by the
fact that everybody turned against him at the end. (Peter Grimes)
Less common in my data
is the Active option of an Emotion as a Noun Object of ‘feel’ [680-81]; and
still less the corresponding Passive [682-83]. Sometimes the Object is a Bodily
Event suggesting but not specifying an Emotion [684-85].
[680] We feel happiness when we pray to Allah (Adel Sadeq)www
[681] Russians feel sadness
and pride as Mir splashes down (Associated Press)www
[682] A general air of happiness was felt
throughout the entire ship (Small Step)www
[683]
The
sadness was felt by all people in the village. Their beloved Chief has passed
in the night. (Native American Story)www
[684]
His gaze swept boldly over her and she felt a rush of warmth right
through her veins. (Lover’s Charade)
[685]
she felt an explosion of fire sweep through her entire body
(Castle of Desire)
71.
Dispositive Emotions of ‘making feel’ are readily found, sometimes with a Human
Agent [686, 688] but more often a Cause [687, 689]. Where the Modifier clearly
indicates the Emotion, the Verb ‘feel’ can be omitted [688-89].
[686]
my mum made me feel happy about
having large breasts (How Do I Look?)
[687] The sun made Endill feel sad
but excited at the journey ahead. (Endill)
[688]
I have been in to see my mother. You have made her happy,
Jenna (Healing Fire)
[689] Puppy love isn’t such a silly
thing. Its made her sad and lonely (Donna Grayson)www
In the woolly Mills and
Boon world of women irresistibly attracted to muscular males, Emotions lend the
vital organs an astounding mobility:
[690]
His voice held a caressing note which flipped her heart over in her chest. (Calypso’s Island)
[691]
As he strode towards her, she felt her heartbeat do a funny little
dance. (Battle for Love)
[692]
The kiss […] was a sensual onslaught that made her brain whirl. (Healing
Fire)
[693]
her stomach leapt inside her, remembering
that dance (Conspiracy of Love)
[694]
she could feel her nipples tingling, tightening to aching points thrusting proud and
carmine under the caressing gaze (Calypso’s Island)
Unlike characters in
Victorian novels (II.156), these women could hardly be ‘overcome by emotion’ if
they are unimpaired by such anatomical convulsions.
72.
Predictably, Commands are Affirmative for Ameliorative Emotions [695] and
Negative for Pejorative ones [696].
[695]
Here are twenty thousand pounds. Be happy!
(Copperfield)
[696]
Rosa, please, please, don’t be unhappy. I’ll help you, I will. (Lost
Father)
I found few examples of Denials for Intention [697], but many for Control [698-99].
[697] I didn’t mean to sound sad. I didn’t mean to be sad. (Sweet
Misery)www
[698] people could
not help feeling happy as a large victory had been won that day (Jynx)www
[699]
I could not help feeling sad in the face of relentlessly fleeting
time. (Li
Wei-Huang)www
73. Communicative
Processes deploy Texts to display and impart significance. One Prototype
Clause Core has Communicator as Subject, Communication as the Verb of ‘saying’
and a Noun Phrase for the Communicated Text as the Direct Object [700]. But the preferred Prototype has the
Communicated Text as a Framed Clause, i.e., a Dependent Clause telling
what was communicated, whilst the Independent Framing Clause of ‘saying’ may
come before [701] but commonly after [702-05]. A Noun for the Communicator goes
after the ‘saying’ [703] more than before [703]; a Pronoun goes before [704]
more than after [705].9
[700]
John Major said a lot of silly things.
(New Statesman)
[701]
Then the butler said, ‘Everything is at your disposal’. (Father Brown)
[702]
‘You’d better get on with that index’, said
the high official (Mayfair)
[703]
‘Appearances are against me, Mr, Sheridan’, the beautiful intruder said. (Certain Hour)
[704]
‘Thy own hand has slain thee, and for my sake’, she
said. (Golden
Age of Myth)
[705]
‘Oh well, you never know’, said she. (Under
the Sea)
The Prototype of
‘telling’ is more likely to have a Noun Object [706], and, when used as a
Frame, prefers that the Receiver be specified [707].
[706]
she told a vivid tale implicating several people in the
murders. (New Scientist)
[707]
Bristoll told the King that he will impeach the Chancellor of
High Treason (Pepys)
74.
A Direct Text has the actual wording set off from the Frame by Quotation Marks
[701-05]. An Indirect Text, with no Marks, fits the wording (such as Tense and
Person) to the Frame. [701a, 707a] Converting between Direct and Indirect Text
has limits, as in [708-08a], and excludes Direct Texts that follow the ongoing
interaction among speakers, as in [709-10] versus [709a-10a].
[701a]
Then the butler said that everything was at their disposal.
[707a]
Bristoll told the King, ‘I shall impeach the Chancellor of High Treason’.
[708]
‘You’re a pretty creature, anyhow’, said Dick. ‘You think so, do you?’ said
Clarissa (Voyage Out)
[708a]
Dick
said Clarissa was a pretty creature, anyhow. ?She said he thought
so, did he?
[709]
‘My God’, he told her, ‘you look awful’. (Kenneth Williams)
[709a]
*He told her that his God, she looked awful.
[710]
‘Ah!’ snarled the Russian. ‘You see, I was right!’ (Adversary)
[710a]
*The Russian snarled ah, she saw, he was right.
Also blocked from
conversion to Indirect are Texts where the Framing Verb is a bodily Enactment
involving the mouth [711-12] versus [711a-12a].
[711]
‘It was kind of you to walk me home’, she smiled. (Maggie)
[711a]
*She smiled that it was kind of him to walk her home.
[712]
He tried, and couldn’t open it either. ‘That’s odd’, he frowned. (Maggie)
[712a]
*He frowned that it was odd he couldn’t open the door.
74. Gist
Texts do not represent what was actually said but indicate the content:
[713]
The report presents the truth about conditions in what is, probably, the
poorest (financially) of all the countries I have visited. (African Primary
Schools)
[714]
Gedge explained the reasons why the group had become a magnificent obsession. (Wedding
Present)
Label
Texts
merely indicate a particular sort of Communication without indicating either
words or content:
[715]
Don Bennett lavished high praise on my finding and training of
pathfinders (Hamish)
[716]
The relaxed atmosphere breeds bantering
conversation. (Independent)
[717]
The mixture of cheap jokes and pretentious philosophising becomes
increasingly hard to stomach (Daily Telegraph)
[718]
French farmers staged an anti-British protest
at Calais at the weekend, throwing stones and hurling insults at
Britons coming off ferries (Today)
Dispositive
Texts
occur in the Active for doing something, usually Pejorative, to somebody, again
without representing the words or content:
[719]
The Headmaster had shouted at him so loudly he was deaf for a
week. (Endill)
[720]
Kylie, said press reports, lost her cool and screamed at the
intruders. (Kylie)
[721]
The sledger cursed the dogs and swore at the television
crew (Arctic Odyssey)
[722]
She slandered her husband, her friends, and her own
self. (Amnesty)
Enactive
Texts
occur in the Medial for producing speech or writing, also usually Pejorative,
using yourself as Medium, whilst words or content are devalued.
[723] Cassie talked and talked
until her throat ached and her mouth was dry (Strawberries)
[724] I lay on the floor on my
stomach, scribbling away and laughing (Deborah Moggach)BNC
[725] I tramped round the room, blabbering
with the excitement. (Midsummer Killing)
[726]
Mrs Thatcher ranted and raved. It was typical of the way she
conducts Cabinet Government. (Observer)
75. The Passive can
omit an irrelevant Communicator [727], e.g., if the Subject is the Circumstantial ‘it’ for ‘saying’ [728], or the Receiver for ‘telling’ [729].
[727]
A story was told whose
smear value demands immediate publication (Punch)
[728]
It was said that the
poet Shelley had been here to sail paper boats. (C.S. Lewis)
[729] I was told one flight was full, and left the gate to mooch
around (Independent)
The Dispositive or
Ergative of ‘making say’ rarely has one Human Agent acting on another [730].
More often, the Process expresses a factor ‘making people say’ what they
otherwise might not [731]; or some uncertainty about what factor could possibly
have done so [732]. Also, a Reflexive use occurs when people compel themselves
to say something they would rather not [733]. And ‘making tell’ can be used for
two Human Agents [734], maybe implying compulsion.
[730]
his mother made him always say what he thought (Possession)
[731]
‘She’s strong’, said Rachaela. It was instinct which made her say it. (Dark Dance)
[732]
‘There’s nothing.’ What on earth had made him
say that? He sounded as if he were denying an affair. (Like Out)
[733]
‘Take
care of your baby’, Birdy made herself say
cheerfully. ‘Jerk’, she said, after they hung up. (Nobody’s Girl)www
[734]
There are two men on her. They’ll find the book. They’ll make her tell them where it is. And then they’ll kill her. (Heathen)
76.
As we saw for Cognition (III.43), some types of Communication imply the truth
[735-736], whilst others entail no such implication [737]. Especially uncertain
are the things ‘told’ to a court [738].
[735]
He admitted that Ipswich had been fortunate to beat Newcastle (Daily
Telegraph)
[736]
The board confirmed that Les Jones is to continue as Britain’s team
manager (Guardian)
[737]
Reagan claimed that US presence in the Lebanon was ‘vitally important to
the security of the United States and the Western world’. (Intelligence Game)
[738]
Today his closest friends told the court he was always honest. But
according to the prosecution, the Cheltenham magistrate is a blatant liar. (TV
news)
The
British press plays it safe by Framing court proceedings (III.79).
77.
Communication readily ‘expresses’ Emotions:
[739]
She shut herself in out of the drizzling rain, and expressed her delight
with every-thing. The roads were quaint, [and] wasn’t Dublin just beautiful! (No
Enemy)
[740]
Indian and Inuit leaders expressed anger over the result of the
referendum. (Keesings)
[741]
All those attending the lobby have expressed their outrage at the
deepening crisis in housing (Leeds Diocesan Catholic Voice)BNC
[742]
Peers expressed their sorrow at the separation of the Prince and
Princess of Wales (Today)
Emotion also animates
the popular media (plus Mills and Boon, natch) to some curious Verbs of saying:
[743] ‘I have my connections’, he gleamed.
(Imajica)
[744] ‘There is no such thing as a
good morning’, she grumped. (Roman Spring)
[745] He came back to the dressing
room in tears. ‘What do you think?’ he blubbed. (Kenneth Williams)
[746] ‘Where are you going?’ he grated
hotly, his eyes alive now, glittering dangerously. ‘To Steve, of course’, she rasped
bitterly. (Love or Nothing)
[747] ‘What big blue eyes you
have’, husked Lucenzo. (Mask of Deception)
Mercifully, these too cannot be converted to Indirect:
[743a] *He gleamed that he had his
connections.
[746a] *He grated hotly where she
was going, and she rasped to Steve.
78.
On the other side of Communication, ‘hearing that’ and ‘reading that’ often
occur without the Communicator [748-51] and vagueness can increase with
‘somewhere’ [752-53]. On the whole, what is ‘read’ carries more authority, that
what is ‘heard’, especially when citing the Bible [751] or ‘taking as read’
[754].
[748]
I heard that his family once had money, but lost it in some way.
(Seasons of My Life)
[749]
I had heard that in the South things are better (English Crime)
[750]
I read that the US is in the grip of Japanophobia following the
purchase of Columbia Pictures by Sony. (Independent)
[751] We read that the apostles in Jerusalem sent Peter and John to them. (Church Planting)
[752]
I heard somewhere that Frank Worthington
claimed to sleep with a different woman before every match (Leeds United)BNC
[753] I read somewhere that your body is warmer in
the winter if you shave your legs. (Well-Woman)www
[754] Need to have it ratified by
the Board. But you can take it as read that
you have the contract. (Nudists)
A Communicator can be
‘heard’ (but apparently not ‘read’) as an Agent of ‘saying that’ [755], and yet
be left unspecified [756]. The interesting variation of ‘hearing oneself say’,
suggests speaking without firm Intention or Control [757-58] — rather the
opposite of ‘making oneself say’ (III.75).
[755]
I distinctly heard you say that some
of my designs weren’t quite suitable. (Miracles)
[756]
You sometimes hear people say
that it is not worth eating differently (Get Slim)
[757]
‘Oh dear’, Ianthe heard herself saying,
feebly, she felt, but it was difficult to know how best to express her
sympathy. (Unsuitable Attachment)
[758]
I
heard myself saying that I had got so
smashed I was sick. (Sexual Health)www
79.
Emotions again figure as effects of what you ‘hear’ or ‘read’ [759-60]. Anger can be expressed by just exclaiming
that you ‘heard’ something [761]. Fearful warnings are issued ‘not to let
someone hear’ what you just said [762].
[759]
I am happy to
hear that the UN security council has eased some sanctions against Iraq.
(James McKenna)www
[760] I’m terribly sad to read
that Michael Kelly has been killed in Iraq. (Virginia Postrel)
[761]
‘Dratted animal! He ought to be shot.’ The old woman bed flashed her a look. ‘I
heard that!’ ‘You were meant to’, snapped Araminta instantly. (Hidden
Flame)
[762]
‘Bit of a slut, if you ask me.’ ‘Don’t let
Barney hear you say that’. (Finishing Touch)
Like ‘told’ in [738],
British legal proceedings can be reported as what was ‘heard’:
[763]
Fireman Richard Pearson loved putting out fires so much that he started 11 of
them himself, a court heard yesterday (Today)
Such Frames handily
allow publishing courtroom data without judging the potential validity or truth
of the Communications (III.76).
80.
These then are the Processes I would propose to recognise for a functional
Lexicogrammar of English, summarised in Table III.1
Process Prototypes
Clause Transitivity Commands Denial of Denial of
Core
Intention Control
Outer Processes
Dispositive ‘doing
to’ Disposer, Active, many yes less
Disposition, Passive
Disposed
Productive ‘making’, Producer, Active, few no no
‘creating’, Production, Passive
‘manufacturing’ Product
Enactive ‘moving’, Enacter, Medial selective yes yes
‘behaving’ Enactment,
Circumstance
Developmental ‘becoming’,, Developer, Medial phoney no no
‘growing’ Development
‘changing’
Inner Processes
Perception ‘seeing’ Perceiver, Active, selective rare selective
‘watching’ Perception, Passive,
‘looking’ Perceived Medial
‘hearing’
‘listening’
‘touching
‘smelling’
‘tasting’
Cognition ‘knowing’, Cogniser, Active, highly no few
‘learning’, Cognition, Passive, selective
‘finding out’ Cognised Medial?
Aspirations ‘wanting’, Aspirer, Active, implausible no yes
‘wishing’, Aspiration, Passive
‘hoping’, Aspired
Representive Processes
Existential ‘there being’ Existent Medial no no no
‘existing’
Circumstantial ‘being Circumstance Medial uncommon very very
somewhere’, few few
‘being sometime’
‘raining’
‘snowing’
Identification ‘being Identified, Medial highly no no
somebody’ Identity selective
Attribution ‘being Attributed, Medial no no no
some way’ Attribute
Evaluation ‘being good’ Evaluated, Medial Ameliorative yes no
‘being bad’ Value Pejorative
Possession ‘having’, Possessor, Active rare no rare
‘owning’, Possessed Passive no no no
‘being mine or yours,’ Medial rare no no
‘giving and getting’,
‘selling and buying’
Expressive Processes
Emotive ‘being happy’ Emoter, Medial Ameliorative few many
‘feeling sad’ Emotion Medial Pejorative
Communicative ‘saying’, Communicator,
Active
‘telling’ Communication, Passive
‘talking’ Communicated
Medial
Table III.1
To be sure, each
one could be described at higher Delicacy as a cluster of Processes, steadily
revealing more interactions between Lexicon and Grammar. Even the sturdier Prototypes go
separate ways in some lexicogrammatical preferences, notably the
81.
Still, this rough outline was derived from attested and authentic samples of
English in large corpora and the Internet, covering a wide span of times,
regions, and varieties. Moreover, it may serve for discussion and analysis of
text and discourse in later chapters, complementing the Standards of
Textuality, especially with Colligations for Cohesion and Collocations for
Coherence.